Some of the Women in My (Very Early) Life

Inevitably, documenting the lives of women in a family history project can often provide a challenge, especially prior to the 20^th century. In my forty-odd years of genealogical research, I have come across many women whose tales either have already been told or should be. This post is simply a collection of vignettes of some of these, whether genetically related or not. Fuller accounts of some of them can also be found in my other genealogical reports.

Lady Jane Fisher (née Lane; circa 1626 –1689)

Jane Lane played a heroic role in the escape of Charles II after the Battle of Worcester in 1651. Both were exiled in France until the Restoration after which Jane was granted £1,000 a year for life. Jane was married to Sir Clement Fisher of Great Packington, Warwickshire in 1663 by the Archbishop of Canterbury. In later life she lived rather extravagantly and became deeply in debt. When she died, her estate was valued at only £10.  Sir Clement was a cousin of Sir Edward Fisher of Mickleton who a direct ancestor of the Anglo-Irish Quaker branch of my maternal grandmother’s family.

Anne Spencer, Countess of Sunderland (born Lady Anne Churchill; 1683–1716)

 With our Hudson family’s recurring middle name of Spencer and origins in Wolfhampcote, Warwickshire, speculation about a family connection to the Spencer-Churchill family was inevitable. Lady Anne Churchill was the second daughter of John and Sarah Churchill, Duke & Duchess of Marlborough. In 1700, Anne married, Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland whose family was originally from Wormleighton, also in Warwickshire. Wolfhampcote and Wormleighton are only about ten miles apart and there is at least one intriguing connection with the Althorp family. The transcript of the earlier parish registers for Wolfhampcote make three references to the sponsorship of vicars in 1596, 1603 and 1606 by Thomas Spencer Esquire, 2nd son of Sir John Spencer of Althorp. So maybe Lady Di and I truly are cousins?

Elizabeth (Betsy) Early (née Waine; 1782 – 1864)

 One of my father’s Oxfordshire ancestral families are the Waines, blanket weavers of Witney.  There were several Waine marriages into another of the leading weaving family, the Earlys, the most significant of these unions being that between Elizabeth Waine and John Early in 1808.  Betsy Waine was a partner of her husband John Early in the complete sense of the word. From their letters that survive, it is clear that she actively participated in the running of the business in addition to being a wife and a mother to their nine children. Several paintings of John and Elizabeth survive and are illustrated in “The Blanket Makers” by Plummer and Early.

Jane Fisher (née Moor; 1789 – 1877)

Jane Moor whose father was from a Yorkshire Quaker family, married Abraham Fisher of Youghal. She was very active in all Quaker social causes and “supported the Temperance campaign when it was neither popular nor very safe to do in Ireland”.

Jane vigourously participated in the running of the Women’s’ Meeting in Youghal and frequently attended the Quarterly Meetings in Cork. She was a zealous supporter of the West Indian anti-slavery movement, boycotting sugar that was produced by slave labour.

Sarah Goble (1820 – 1837)

Monday 30th October 1837 was a sad day for the Goble family. For it was then that Sarah Goble was buried at St Egbert’s parish church in Bicester at the tragically young age of seventeen.  The silver lining was the baptism of her infant son, William who miraculously survived her. This was a good thing as he was my father’s grandfather. The fact that the time of birth was recorded on William’s birth certificate is an indication that this was probably a multiple birth.  His twin, if indeed he/she existed, was presumably stillborn.  The “inflammation” that Sarah died from was most likely serious hemorrhaging or massive infection after childbirth. Multiple births dramatically increased the risk not only to the mother but also to the children.

Anna Haslam (née Fisher; 1829–1922)

Anna Maria Fisher was an aunt of my maternal great-grandfather.  She was a committed advocate of women’s rights in Ireland and was also very involved both in famine relief and in the international peace movement.  Anna was able to offer valuable help to Marie Stopes with her research on the history of birth control but was not given much credit in Stope’s subsequent books on the subject. In later years, however, Stopes did acknowledge Anna’s important role. In her 2009 essay on Anna Maria Haslam, Mary Cullen writes:  “Anna Haslam's contribution to the development of Irish feminist activism was enormous, as was that of the suffrage association she founded. She combined strong and effective leadership with an ability to win the respect and admiration of many who disagreed with her on various issues”.

Martha Clapham (née Handley; 1830 – 1921)

 Martha Clapham came from sound Yorkshire farming stock. Her obituaries said that she had been of great interest to students of the Yorkshire dialect, as she “spoke it pure and simple”.  Apparently Martha was also able to play a good many tunes on the mouth organ!  When she died in 1921 she was the oldest inhabitant of North Rigton (near Harrogate). 

Marie Fisher (née Clapham; 1863 – 1950)

Marie Fisher, my great-grandmother was radical for her time and was an active member of the women's suffragette movement.  She was a frequent speaker at the Women's Social and Political Union. According to her obituaries; she was stoned by a hostile crowd during a meeting in Leeds while supporting the most prominent member of the movement, Emmeline Pankhurst.  As a secularist and freethinker, Marie attended the Rome International Freethought Congress of 1904 as a delegate of the British Secular League. She was elected as the first woman president of the Leeds Philatelic Society in 1923 and in 1926 she sat on the committee of the prestigious Yorkshire Naturalists’ Society.

In spite of her espoused liberal views, Marie does not appear to have been a particularly tolerant woman, castigating most members of her family at various times.  She had a high intellect and great strength of character but these qualities were often used to further her own agenda, sometimes at a cost to others.

Annie Wilhelmina Hudson (née Goble; 1866 - 1954)

Annie Wilhelmina Goble became the wife of Robert Spencer Hudson in 1894. Thus when he was elected Mayor of Rugby in 1935, she assumed the role and responsibilities of Mayoress. Endless official functions, including the royal visit of Princess Mary, daughter of King George V, would have required her active participation and inevitably she was also expected to fill the role of mother to their six children.

Flora Jane Thompson (née Timms; 1876 – 1947)

William Wain Goble, my father’s maternal grandfather and Flora Jane Thompson, author of the Oxford trilogy, Lark Rise to Candleford have no shared ancestry but they do have several Waine cousins in common, several of whom were used as models for characters in her hugely successful books. Flora probably traveled to Bicester while working for Fringford Post Office and it was there that she visited with these Waine cousins. 

Lester Rowntree (born Gertrude Ellen Lester; 1879-1979)

Gertrude Ellen Lester was born in northern England to a Quaker family. In 1889, when Nellie was ten, her father decided to give up his grocery store and bought, sight unseen, a farm in Kansas in the United States. His farming venture failed and Mr. Lester and two of his children died of typhoid from contaminated well water. A Mrs. Charlotte Rowntree, my great-grandfather’s second wife, read of the family's plight in a Quaker newspaper, felt compassion for the family and offered them a home in her Kansas City house. It was here that Nellie first met Charlotte's son, Bernard Rowntree. They married in 1908 when she assumed the name Lester Rowntree. After their subsequent divorce, Lester achieved fame as a pioneering botanist in California, becoming a passionate advocate for the preservation of the state’s native flora.

The best British TV period dramas?

So ….. which are the best British TV period dramas?  The best Dickens I have seen were two of his lesser-known works, Bleak House and Little Dorrit which were superior to the better-known Great Expectations and Oliver Twist.

My favorites would definitely include Elizabeth Gaskell’s Wives & Daughters and North & South.  I thought that Cranford was just too “soap opera” and dragged on rather. As did Lark Rise to Candleford though it must be mentioned that some of Flora Thompson’s characters were based on cousins of mine (the Waine’s of Oxfordshire).

John Galsworthy’s The Forsyte Saga certainly gets a nod but I much preferred the newer (2002) version to the “classic” Nyree Dawn Porter original ….. but then the later production has Gina McKee in it which explains all.  If we extend the comments to later in the 20^th century then of course Brideshead Revisited is absolutely superb.

What?  No Jane Austin? What heresy is this?  Too many titles, too many versions so they all morph into one storyline. George Elliott? Her stories were way too sugary for me, especially Mill on the Floss and Silas Marner. The exception of course was Middlemarch but I am not sure the 1994 production has stood the test of time. Maybe I should give it another shot.

And the Bronte’s?  I do not think that any of the TV versions have done justice to the originals but then, I’m a Yorkshire lad.

What is the perfect muesli recipe?

Cost and quantities.  Homemade muesli is not necessarily a cheap breakfast but it’s nutritious and very tasty. I have not specified quantities because it’s fun to experiment.  A starting point might be cereal/dried fruit/nuts in the ratio of about 8/3/2 cups.

Cereal.  Always use organic cereal whenever possible. Usually the basis of muesli is oats. It’s also good to add a combination of barley, wheat and rye flakes if you can get them. Alternatively, a lot of quality stores will sell a “five-grain” combo already mixed.

Dried Fruit. Raisins are usually the staple but do add something else for interest.  Dried cranberries (which come slightly sweetened) are a good extra. Dried blueberries or cherries are both quite expensive and the difference in taste might be lost in the mix anyway. Mix up the raisins and cranberries (or whatever) with some finely ground flax seeds or similar to prevent “clumping”. Chopped dates are also good: they can often be bought already chopped or minced and lightly dusted in flour.

Nuts. Sliced/slivered almonds are the norm. A good second nut is the hazelnut (chopped of course), also known as

Seeds. I am not sure whether it matters whether you use pumpkin seeds or melon seeds. Either way, they should be toasted in the oven at 350 degrees until brown. This should take about 30 minutes.  Check them every five minutes so they do not burn. Some people lightly toss the seeds in canola oil or similar before toasting but I am not sure that is absolutely necessary.

Healthy additives. There are many choices. Here are five alternatives:

Wheat germ.  A good source of various nutrients including Vitamin E and folic acid. Note that wheat germ can become rancid if not properly stored in a refrigerator. This is obviously still true even after it’s been added to the muesli.

Flax seed. Sometimes comes across as the modern “snake oil”. Still, it is a good source of omega-3 fatty acids amongst other things. It should be ground before use.

Chia. Cultivated by the Aztecs and can be used as an alternative to flax. I see no convincing reason to add both.

Psyllium. This is claimed to be effective in reducing blood cholesterol levels. Note that it can be a choking hazard if taken without adequate fluid!

Hemp seed. This is high in essential fatty acids, including omega-3 and omega-6.

Whatever you use, all should be quite fine and so do not add too much. Otherwise the final product will taste distinctly “dusty”.

Sugar?  Of course this is pure heresy to purist muesli eaters. For many people the dried fruit will provide enough sweetener. However, if you do have a sweet tooth and your diet can accommodate a soupcon of extra sugar, add a couple of tablespoons of soft brown sugar to the mix. 

Road Menders

Eons ago, a little boy who liked ice-cream also used to like digging holes. And so, from a very early age, he used to go down to the dirt lane at the bottom of his garden and play “road menders”. 

That consisted of digging up some of the smaller rocks in the lane and then filling in the resulting hole again, smoothing things out as he proceeded.

Years later, this same little boy married this little girl.

The little girl liked plants. Plants need holes.

And so, the little boy gets to play “road menders” again. Digging the holes and filling them in again.

I think there is an expression “what goes around comes round”.  What a truism this is. 

British TV detective/mystery series

There have been many BBC and ITV British detective/mystery series which have since appeared on either Masterpiece Theatre or on DVD.  These are some of them, loosely in order of my favorites (best first). What I am missing?

Foyle's War. Crime in the 2^nd World War on the south coast of England.

Prime Suspect with Helen Mirren as Jane Tennison.

Life on Mars. DCI Sam Tyler “transported” from 2006 to 1973. Inevitably, one grows to like the bullying Gene Hunt.

Wallander. Inspector Kurt Wallander in southern Sweden.

Inspector Morse. The archetypal Oxford curmudgeon.

George Gently.  An honest ex-Yard cop in Durham.

Rebus. Insp. Rebus in Edinburgh. First series with John Hannah.

Inspector Lewis. Was Morse’s sidekick; better than expected. Perhaps too Oxford-centric?

A Touch of Frost. Det. Jack Frost was around way too long.

Dalziel & Pascoe. Loud-mouthed copper in Yorkshire.

Hetty Wainthropp. At least it’s different but what about the hat?

Midsomer Murders. DCI Barnaby also outstayed his welcome. How can one village have so many murders?

Murder in Suburbia. Kate Ashurst and Emma Scribbins … not sure that their endless “debates about dates” rang true. Maybe they are not supposed to?

The Last Detective. Dangerous Davies; “a decent man in an indecent world”.

Miss Marple. The Joan Hickson version. Almost as annoying as Poirot?

Inspector Lynley Mysteries. Dubious expression of English class-warfare but I do love his cars (Jensen Interceptor and then a Bristol 410).

Poirot. Really annoying but that’s what Agatha intended?

Wire in the Blood. Featuring psychologist Dr. Tony Hill.

Second Sight. Ross Tanner with spells of blindness.

Paleoanthropology, genealogy and the miracle of DNA

Part Three

William Hudson. Latest update 7^th May 2012

In order to understand the types of issues that DNA analysis can help resolve, it’s worth reviewing, at least qualitatively, a few well-known examples.

Mitochondrial DNA examples

The last Russian royal family

In 1991, nine bodies were exhumed from a shallow grave just outside Ekaterinburg on the eastern slopes of the Ural Mountains in Russia.  Circumstantial evidence, along with mitochondrial DNA sequencing, provided a compelling argument that the remains were those of the Romanovs, the Russian royal family who were executed in 1918. Tsarina Alexandra, the three children buried with her and Prince Philip's (her great nephew) mitochondrial DNA turned out to be an exact match on 740 tested nucleotides.  Three years later, additional DNA evidence was obtained from the Grand Duke Georgij Romanov (the 28-year-old brother of Tsar Nicholas II, who died of tuberculosis in 1899) that confirmed this theory.

Two children were absent from the 1991 grave site. A second grave was discovered close-by in 2007. Combined mitochondrial DNA, autosomal STR and Y- STR testing on those remains provided evidence that the two individuals recovered from the this grave were the two missing children of the Romanov family: the Tsarevich Alexei and one of his sisters.

Cheddar Man

In 1903, human remains were found in a cave in Cheddar, England. They were those of a 23 year-old man who was determined to be about 9,000 years old. Ninety-four years after the discovery of "Cheddar Man", Oxford University scientists were able to extract mitochondrial DNA from his tooth cavity. The Oxford team then distributed DNA test kits to Cheddar schools and a close match was found to a local schoolteacher, Adrian Targett. He lives half a mile from the burial site and is a history teacher.  Two exact genetic matches were identified with local school children whose identities remained confidential to this day.

“Oetzi" the Iceman

“Oetzi" the Iceman was found in 1991 in the Italian Alps. He lived in the Neolithic era, about 5300 years ago and is now on display at the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology in Bolzano, northern Italy.  DNA testing shows that Oetzi belongs to the K1 subcluster of the mitochondrial haplogroup K which suggests he is most closely related to southern Europeans, possibly with populations of Sardinia and Corsica. However, it is believed that he has no living descendants.

Titanic baby

The body of this child was found floating in the North Atlantic, six days after the famous cruise liner sank. The original DNA test conducted in 2002 identified the baby as Eino Panula by matching his DNA to that of living family members in Finland. However subsequent mitochondria tests confirmed that the baby was not related to the Panulas but was, in fact, Sidney Leslie Goodwin who was on the cruise liner with the rest of his British family at the time of the disaster.

Guilty or Innocent?

Hawley Crippen was an American doctor who moved to England in 1900 with his wife, Cora. After Cora disappeared in 1910, police found mutilated remains beneath the cellar floor in Crippen's home and which were determined to be hers. Crippen was convicted of Cora’s murder and hanged at Pentonville Prison. He protested his innocence to the end. In 2007, a team of forensic scientists from Michigan State University compared mitochondrial DNA from remains kept at the Royal London Hospital Archives with samples taken from Cora’s surviving relatives.  They concluded that remains could not be those of Cora Crippen and that, in fact, they were from a male victim. Even though MSU’s conclusions have been challenged, Hawley Crippen’s family has launched a legal battle to clear his name.

Y-chromosome DNA examples

Did Thomas Jefferson father children by his slave, Sally Hemmings?

Thomas Jefferson is widely believed to have fathered at least some of the children of his slave, Sally Hemmings. To resolve these long-standing claims, a DNA study carried out in 1998, found a direct Y-chromosome match between male-line descendants of Field Jefferson (Thomas Jefferson's uncle;  Jefferson himself had no male descendants of his own) and a descendant of Sally’s last son, Eston Hemmings and confirmed that they share a common Jefferson ancestor. The Thomas Jefferson Foundation believes that the known evidence (including the DNA results) indicates a high probability that Jefferson was indeed the father of all six of Sally Hemings's children listed in the Monticello records.  However, the Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society reached different conclusions and suggests that Jefferson's younger brother Randolph was more likely the father of at least some of Sally Heming’s children.

Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan's empire extended across Asia from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea. A group of geneticists studying Y-chromosome data found that nearly eight percent of the men living in the region of this former Mongol empire carry y-chromosomes that are nearly identical. That translates to roughly 16 million descendants living today and it is postulated that Genghis Khan was their common ancestor. The connection to him will, however, never be a certainty unless his grave is found and his own DNA could be extracted.

The Lost Tribe of Israel?  

The Center for Genetic Anthropology at University College London set up a project to examine the Bantu-speaking Lemba tribe’s oral tradition of Jewish descent.  Today, they are found in Zimbabwe and South Africa. The team collected DNA samples from African Bantus, Yemeni Arabs and Sephardic & Azhkenazi Jews to compare the amount of similarity that existed between each of these groups and in particular a particular series of genetic markers on the Y chromosome of Lemba males. The study did suggest that the Lemba, and more specifically members of the Buba sub-clan, seem to have an ancestral connection to the Judaic populations that were tested.

Paleoanthropology, genealogy and the miracle of DNA

Part Two.

William Hudson. Latest update 28^th April 2012

Cellular structure

Cells can be thought of as the building blocks of living organism. They consist primarily of the body of the cell or cytoplasm and the nucleus. The human nucleus contains 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes), giving a total of 46 per cell. The sex chromosomes are X & Y; Two X chromosomes produce a female; an X & Y produce a male. Y-chromosomes can only be passed on from father to son and is usually passed on without alternation or genetic mixing.  

Chromosomes are, in turn, are made up of DNA molecules. DNA is made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). The DNA molecule is arranged as a double-helix like a ladder with the four bases making up the “rungs” and sugar phosphates making up the “rails”. The building block (nucleotides) of the DNA consists of a base plus a phosphate. Each rung of the DNA ladder consists of two bases (base pairs) but A can only bond with T and C always bonds with G.  Thus four “rung combinations” are possible: AG, GA, CT and TC.

The genetic code of organisms is determined by the arrangement of these base pairs within the DNA of the chromosomes.  A gene is the fundamental unit of hereditary and is simply a sequence of nucleotides on a chromosome (the coding region). However, about 95% of the DNA in the human genome is non-coding (aka “junk”). Outside of the nucleus, the cytoplasm of the cell includes mitochondria which has its own DNA, independent of the DNA included in the nuclear chromosomes. Mitochondria are divided into two parts, the control region and the coding region. The genetic code in mtDNA can only be passed on by females but to both sons and daughters.

A genetic marker is a distinctive feature of the DNA molecule that allows a particular position (or locus) on the molecule to be flagged.

DNA provides the “instructions” for cells to make identical copies of themselves. When spontaneous or random changes do occur, these are known as mutations. Such mutations that occur in the coding regions of chromosomes account for all genetic differences between humans whereas mutations in the non-coding or junk-DNA have no effect.

Y-chromosome testing

The Y-chromosome is inherited from father to son with minimal changes from one generation to the next. There is one type of Y-chromosome mutation that occurs at a relatively fast rate that is of use in a genealogical timeframe, known as a Short Tandem Repeat (STR). They are usually 2-5 bases in length; for example GATAGATAGATA where the three-base sequence is repeated. Results are expressed as the number of repeats (or allele) at a given marker. For example DYS390 – 24 would be 24 repeats at the marker in position DYS390. The complete set of a subject’s results is known as his haplotype.

Just knowing the haplotype numbers in of itself means little. However, the differences in STRs at select markers on the Y-chromosome (or polymorphs) can provide a basis for comparison among individuals and populations.  If the mutation rate is known, the time frame in which the two individuals shared a most recent common ancestor or MRCA can be determined. If their test results are a perfect or near perfect match, they are related within genealogy's time frame. For example, using Family Tree DNA’s 76-marker comparison, two men will most likely share a common ancestor within a genealogical timeframe with a match of 60 out of 67 or better. Probabilities can also be assigned. For example, an exact match in a high-resolution 111-marker test, there is a 95% probability that the common ancestor lived within five generations.

Another type of mutation is known as Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNP) which occur only at a single nucleotide at a specific position in a chromosome and can only occur once in a single individual. An SNP is one type of Unique Event Polymorphism (UEP) which is has a mutation rate so low that it can be treated as a one-time event and is more applicable to “Deep Ancestry” studies. A group of descendents that each shares the same UEP is known as a Haplogroup.  These are identified by the letters A through S, with A being the African group from which all modern haplogroups are descended. Note: STR results can sometimes predict a likely haplogroup but this can only be confirmed by SNP testing.

mtDNA testing

Mitochondrial DNA is only passed though the maternal line and also with minimal changes from one generation to another. Testing can be done in one or both of two areas of the control region known as the Hypervariable Region (HVR1 and HVR2) although it is now possible to obtain a complete mtDNA sequence (16,659 bases or nucleotides). The test result is a string of bases, defined by their letters and raging from a few hundred to upwards of a thousand, that is compared to the Cambridge Reference Sequence (CRS) and the differences (which represent substitutions of bases) noted.  In absolute terms, the mtDNA mutation rate is low and most people have only a handful of differences with the CRS. Results are often more applicable to “Deep Ancestry” studies, rather than shorter timeframe genealogical projects. The complete set of mtDNA polymorphs then represents the individual’s haplotype. mtDNA haplogroups are also identified with letters but the sequence denotes the order in which they were discovered. As with the Y-DNA test, haplogroups can be indicated by mtDNA haplotypes but confirmation can only be obtained by SNP testing which is usually carried out in the coding region.

In some instances, mtDNA tests can have genealogical relevance but a nearly perfect match is not as helpful as it is for the above Y-DNA case. In the matrilineal case, it takes a perfect match to be really useful and even then the MRCA could have lived hundreds of years ago. The higher the resolution, the higher the chance that an exact match indicates a maternal common ancestor.

Autosomal testing

This test is carried out on the 22 non-gender determining chromosome pairs which do undergo changes (known as recombination) from one generation to another. A mixture of autosomal DNA is inherited from both parents in a roughly equal mix but it is shuffled up with each generation. Thus the test crosses gender lines; it is not restricted to either the paternal or maternal lines only. Conclusions from autosomal testing tend to be somewhat generic and the method suffers from a high error rate. Two types of test are available.

One identifies the number of times a given sequence repeats at each location (Short Tandem Repeats or STRs).  These tests would be applicable, for example, to paternity or sibling verification or adoption issues.

The second method tests for Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) and identifies the number and length of DNA segments that are shared between individuals. The more shared segments and the longer the length of those segments, the more common ancestors are possible.

Family Tree DNA

There are several genealogical DNA testing companies, most of which are in the US. Of all of these, it is difficult to argue against using Family Tree DNA, based in Houston. They offer the most complete suite of tests and, although not cheap, are competitively priced. Results are stored free for 25 years; they host many genealogical test projects, manage the largest DNA databases and are in partnership with the National Geographic Genographic Project.

Y-DNA testing is offered at three levels with 37, 67 and 111 markers. If a customer’s Y-DNA STR haplogroup cannot be predicted with 100% confidence, the Backbone SNP deep ancestry test is offered at no charge.  mtDNAPlus is a mid-level maternal line test that includes HVR1 and HVR1+HVR2 matches. mtFullSequence also tests the Coding Region. Family Finder is Family Tree DNA’s version of the autosomal DNA test.

Paleoanthropology, genealogy and the miracle of DNA

So you think that finding your great-great grandparents was tough?

Paleoanthropology, genealogy and the miracle of DNA.

Part One. William Hudson. Latest update 23^rd April 2012

Did you know that the human race originated in Africa and from there migrated throughout the world? Or that 95% of modern Europeans fit into one of seven maternal ancestor groups, of ages ranging from 10,000 to 45,000 years?  Did you hear of the prehistoric cave-man from the Cheddar Gorge in southwest Britain and a modern history schoolteacher (living only a few miles away) who are descended from the same female ancestor? In kinship terms, they are some degree of cousin, some 315 times removed.  Have you heard of the Iceman, found in the Italian Alps in 1991 and dated at 5300 years old and that he is a proven ancestor of a modern Irish woman? Did you know that there is convincing evidence that the Bantu-speaking Lemba people of southern Africa have at least some Jewish ancestry?

Moving to more recent times, can you imagine that 8% of all males in a vast region of Asia, stretching from the Pacific to the Caspian Sea are all descended from Genghis Khan, the ruler of the Mongolian empire? Did you read about the exhumed bodies in Russia which were proven (with the help of the Queen of England’s husband) to be members of the executed Tsarist royal family?  By now you have probably figured out that the bond linking all these topics is DNA, or Deoxyribonucleic Acid.

DNA is the genetic material carried by all living things, including us, which allows inheritance of characteristics from one generation to the next. A DNA molecule consists of two strands that wrap around each other to resemble a twisted ladder, the famous double helix. Strands of DNA in the nucleus of the cell, which function in the transmission of hereditary information, are called chromosomes. A gene is the fundamental unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring and consists of a sequence of DNA that occupies a specific location on a chromosome. The DNA sequence within the genes of an organism can change over time, resulting in the creation of a new character or trait not found in the parental type. This is known as a mutation. If we then know the approximate period of time over which mutations occur (rate of mutation), we can compare the DNA of two like organisms and then estimate the age of their common ancestor.

There are two primary genetic methods of determining if you are related to someone who may be an ancestor, whether living or deceased. This can either be on a genealogical (historical) scale or in an archaeological framework, depending on the mutation rates applicable to the particular method being used. In both methods, similarities and differences between DNA signatures are identified. These can indicate the time to the Most Recent Common Ancestor (MRCA) of the two individuals or groups.

If the genetic make-up of two individuals are compared, the differences between them (polymorphisms) are due to mutations (changes in the DNA sequence). If these differences can be identified and the rate of mutation is known, then the elapsed time back to a common ancestor can be estimated. The assumption is made that the number of nucleotides (a repeating unit in a DNA strand) that differ between two individuals, increase in relation to the time elapsed from their last common ancestor. In other words, the closer they are related, the higher the number of matching nucleotides. Depending on the number of markers (segments of DNA with identifiable locations on a chromosome) tested and the number of matches identified, a  probability can be assigned as to how long ago this common ancestor existed.

The first method is mitochondrial (mtDNA) analysis which examines the DNA found in the mitochondria, a circular strand of DNA found outside of the cell’s nucleus. This method traces ancestors through the maternal line because mitochondrial DNA is only passed from the mother to her children, both sons and daughters. Because mtDNA mutation rates are relatively slow, the test is more often used to study long-term population developments such as human migrations and can reveal details about the distant origins of maternal ancestors.

The second method uses the Y chromosome which is passed only through the male line.  This characteristic allows us to trace a direct genetic line of inheritance from fathers to sons. Because women don’t carry the Y-chromosome, their patrilineal ancestry can be traced only through a DNA sample from a father or brother. The second characteristic that makes the Y chromosome unique is that the information carried on this chromosome is inherited largely intact over time. Unlike other chromosomes, in most instances the genetic material on the Y is not mixed with each new generation. However, during the DNA copying process from one generation to another, small changes or mutations do occasionally occur and it is these mutational differences that allow us to distinguish the Y chromosome of an individual from his ancestor's. Depending on the number of DNA markers tested and the number of matches between individuals, the tests will indicate with a certain degree of probability how long ago their common ancestor existed.

Y-chromosome analysis is generally more suitable for genealogical study as the faster mutating DNA patterns have durations of hundreds of years whereas the slower mutating mtDNA patterns last for thousands of years. However, Y-chromosome recovery from ancient remains is very difficult whereas it is possible to recover mtDNA, depending on the conditions of burial.

A third, solely genealogical, method is relatively recent and is more restricted in application. It tests the autosomal chromosomes. Compared to Y-DNA and mtDNA tests, it is broader (can find matches in any branch of a family and is not limited to just the paternal or maternal lines) but also shallower (only works when people share relatively recent ancestors). Both men and women can take this test.

To first address the archaeological time scale, consider the evolutionary route by which modern humans arrived. The path by which Homo sapiens evolved is much like a family tree. Some branches die out, while others have progeny that continue the line. In some instances, the successful line might be living at the same time as one which later becomes extinct. Homo sapiens evolved about 200,000 years ago, possibly in Ethiopia. At that time there was at least one other older “cousin” still sharing the earth with us, namely Homo neanderthalensis who lived in Europe until about 25,000 years ago at about the time of the last Ice Age. Two key questions kept surfacing. First, were we descended directly from these folks or alternatively, did we share common ancestors? Second, did humans evolve on one part of the earth and then migrate to the other continents or did we evolve concurrently on several continents?

DNA analysis takes us closer to the answers of both of these questions. Svante Pääbo of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig sequenced Neanderthal DNA from bones found in the Vindija cave in Croatia. He and his team  concluded that between 1-4% of the DNA of people today who live outside Africa came from Neanderthals, the result of interbreeding between them and early modern humans.

Moreover, our species most likely originated in Africa and then migrated throughout the rest of the world (the “out of Africa” theory) rather than simultaneously evolving from a prior hominid in a number of locales (the less likely multi-regional theory). Modern humans evolved relatively recently from a small founding population of a few thousand people living in Africa. 

Early migrations of specific human populations are known as haplogroups which are usually associated with a geographic region. Both mtDNA and Y-DNA tests provide haplogroup information but use different nomenclatures. A y-DNA haplogroup is defined as all of the male descendants of the single person who first showed a particular type of genetic mutation. Simiarly, a mtDNA haplogroup is defined as all of the female descendants of the single ancestor who first showed a particular genetic polymorphism.

Worldwide, there were probably at least 36 maternal ancestral groups as defined by mtDNA analysis. The “the clan mothers” were clearly not the only females alive at the time but they were the only women to have direct maternal descendants living through to the present day. The other women around, or their descendants, either had no children at all or had only sons, who could not pass on their mtDNA.  Mitochondrial DNA analysis through the female line can hopefully identify a subject’s matrilineal ancestral groups. For example, one author claims that most inhabitants of Europe are descended from just seven women who arrived on the continent at different times during the last 45,000 years. The data was taken from an analysis of 6,000 mtDNA samples and found that the seven "ancestral mothers" have strong links to one of three groups in Africa today. Virtually all European populations have representatives of all seven "mothers".  If you have European ancestry, modern DNA sampling can thus  place your family into one of these archaic groups. Similar studies are being carried out on other geographic and ethnic groups around the world. Obviously, all the clan mothers had ancestors themselves. Their genealogies show how everyone alive on the planet today can trace their maternal ancestry back to just one woman (“Mitochondrial Eve”). She lived in Africa about 150,000+ years ago.

Ancestral men were similarly clustered in a relatively small number of groups, perhaps about 18 in total, which can be defined by the genetic signature of their y-DNA. The men within each of these groups are all ultimately descended from just one man, their “clan father”. Again, these ancestral clan fathers were not the only men around at the time, but they were the only ones to have direct male descendants living today. The other men around at the time, or their descendants, either had no children at all or had only daughters. For example, one study has concluded that most European men alive today are probably descended from five ancient groups of forefathers. Furthermore, 80% of European men inherited their Y-chromosomes from primitive hunter-gatherers who lived up to 40,000 years ago. The remaining 20% of male ancestors are likely to have been migrants who arrived in Europe from the Near East about 10,000 years ago. These clan fathers themselves had male ancestral lines and these ultimately converge on the common paternal ancestor of every man alive today (“Y-chromosomal Adam”). This man is believed to have lived in Africa, 60,000+ years ago.

On a historical or genealogical time-scale, Y-chromosome tests can help determine:

1. Whether individual males share a common male ancestor (the Most Recent Common Ancestor, or MRCA).  An analysis of the mutations in the Y-chromosome can be used to estimate the degree of separation between the men, expressed as the number of generations since the separation of their lineages occurred.
2. If a set of men with the same or similar surname are directly related through a common ancestor.
3. How many different common male ancestors are shared by any given male group.
4. Paternity and name-change uncertainties
5. To which broad haplogroup an individual male belongs, possibly including his geographic origins in another continent or country

The use of mtDNA on a genealogical time scale is rather more challenging due to the slower mutation rate. When mitochondrial DNA sequencing is used for genealogical purposes, the results are usually reported as differences from the revised Cambridge Reference Sequence (CRS), the first mtDNA donor that was completely sequenced.  However, as mtDNA is more likely to be preserved in the remains of deceased people, it has been used to resolve historical mysteries such as the Titanic Baby and the identification of the Unknown Soldier in addition to those case histories mentioned above.

There are now dozens of genealogical “one-name” groups who are pooling resources and building DNA databases of all their members based on the fact that, at least in many Western societies, both surnames and Y-chromosomes are passed down via the male line. “In a medium resolution test, an exact match on all markers by two men sharing the same surname generally implies that they share a common male ancestor within a genealogically relevant time frame” (Pomery, 2004).  Such projects are also based on assumptions that the surnames have a unique origin (it would not work for “Smith”, for example) and that there are few illegitimacies in the pedigree.

Groups of specific ethnicity are also using DNA to determine their ancestry. For example, black Americans are using the latest genetic research to make once-impossible connections to their ancestral homelands. African Ancestry claims it can usually trace at least one family bloodline to specific geographic areas on the African continent. Similarly, several Native American groups have embarked on DNA projects. Trace Genetics is one company that targets the Native American segment of this market. 

Activities ......

There are so many Sights of Budapest that describing all the ones we have seen might be rather tedious.  So instead, perhaps I will mention a couple of other activities we have pursued. Of course, gilt-covered columns were ubiquitous, from Basilicas …….

to coffee houses …….

The baths were certainly worth their few hours.  Budapest is a major spa centre with numerous thermal baths that were first developed by the Romans. In this part of Europe, the river Danube follows the geological fault that separates the Buda Hills from the Great Plain. This allows over 40 million liters of warm mineral water to flow to the surface each day from a hundred or so thermal springs.

The baths can be prescribed by a doctor in which case, entry is free but we dutifully paid our fifteen dollars. It was worth it.

Our visit to the Hungarian State Opera was rather less prodigious. The venue was of course, spectacular (yet more Art Nouveau gilt …. how blasé) but the performance of Don Pasquale did not inspire us.

The river trip down the Danube was a day well spent although as the scenery was not particularly spectacular en route (other than in Budapest itself), I would probably opt for the faster hydrofoil next time. There were a number of possible destinations and we chose the small medieval town of Visegrad.  Quite a hike to the fort on the hill but rewarded with one of the best views around. The displays were quite well done and in addition to the historical information, I also learned about Black Sea sturgeons and European bison. Both now almost extinct.

This trip has also taught me about a part of Europe I am not familiar with. My knowledge of Central Europe was certainly sketchy at best. Those borders certainly floated around a lot throughout history and defining a “country” gets to be rather tricky. Defining Hungary itself by today’s borders, its historical empire, linguistic boundaries etc. obviously produces vastly different pictures. And the Hungarians themselves are not loath to remind you of this.

Intense days in Budapest

The last three days were intense.  First getting over the train ride & “running errands” (buying tickets, grocery shopping etc.), the second spent with Sharon’s cousin and yesterday exploring (at length) the Art Nouvea district in Pest. David & Linda moved here from Malawi where they had lived for 26 years. He is Regional Director (Eastern Europe & the Middle East) for the missionary activities of the church they belong to and chose Budapest as their base.

They took us to visit their friend, Elizabeth who was born in Hungary (she is now in her 70s), married an American so left in the early 1960s but returned to her homeland where she now lives. She has been through so much in the post-war Stalinist years. Notwithstanding the hardships their parents’ endured under communism, it is just not an issue for the next generation. The concept of “they will not be forgotten” seems to be fine in theory but not very robust in practice. 

Returning to the theme of comparison, I suppose Prague inevitably pops up on the radar screen, being so close to Budapest. However, whereas Prague is the more “beautiful” of the two, I think Budapest might be considered more “grand”.  In fact, UNESCO’s vote for the city that can claim to be Europe’s greatest Art Nouveau architectural masterpiece is actually Riga in Latvia. Who would have thought it?